Student's Roles

The way learners are regarded influences the design of the instructional system. Furthermore, the way they behave concerning their consciousness about the process of learning and their contribution is definitely reflected in the method. This is seen in the types of activities learners carry out, the degree of control they have over the content of learning, the patterns of learner groupings adopted, the degree to which learners influence the learning of others, and the view of the learner as processor, performer, initiator, problem solver. This is the origin of a so hard criticism over Audiolingualism, method that restrains the roles of the learners, limiting them only to response to stimulus by repetition.

According to Johnson and Paulston (1976), learners’ roles are:

Plan their own learning program,

Monitor and evaluate their own progress,

Be members of a group and learn by interacting with others,

Tutor other learners,

Learn from the teacher, from other students and from other teaching sources.

I would like to comment on how important a conscious learning process is, in order to consolidade knowledge. In fact, the idea that the planning and suggestions for class are only teacher's tasks is totally outdated.

The learner has the right, the opportunity and the 'obbligation' to inform the teacher what he/she fells interesting. This way, the learning/teaching process will happen in a cooperative way, and the results will be surely improved!

'Learner's Roles' on the Internet:

http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~jeank/MOATS_definitions.htm

http://www.telelearning-pds.org/tlpds/theme7/roles.html

http://vickyloras.wordpress.com/2010/02/08/teachers-and-learners-roles-that-complement-each-other/

Bibliographical Sources:

RICHARDS, J. ; RODGERS, T. Approaches and methods in Language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986

LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. Techniques and principles in language teaching. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.

NUNAN, David. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Teacher's Roles

Teacher’s roles are closely related to learner’s roles. Depending on the method applied, the role of the teacher may vary from a totally central figure, as a source of knowledge and directions, to a catalytic one, acting more as a consultant than a guide.

Teacher roles in methods are related to the following issues: (a) the types of functions teachers are expected to fulfill, whether that of practice director, counselor, or model, for example; (b) the degree of control the teacher has over how learning takes place; (c) the degree to which the teacher is responsible for determining the content of what is taught; and (d) the interactional patterns that develop between teachers and learners.

The success of a method will ultimately depend on the teacher’s role, since it is the main instrument through which both the objectives of a method and the learning theory on which a method is based are applied.

I would like to comment about how important the teacher's role is, even when the class is student-centered. It is the teacher who guides the activity, who leads people to discuss, and who instigates communication. Besides, in the postmethod era, we see that, although the learner's roles have increased very much, the autonomy of the teacher as the one who decides about the syllabus, approaches and activities has gained more importance as well.

'Teacher's Roles' on the Internet:

http://www.csun.edu/~meq75037/paper1.html

http://www.members.shaw.ca/priscillatheroux/teacherrole.html

http://ezinearticles.com/?Role-of-Teachers-in-the-Present-Day-Society&id=1398161

http://navodaya.gov.in/Role%20of%20Teacher.htm

Bibliographical Sources:

RICHARDS, J. ; RODGERS, T. Approaches and methods in Language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986

BENESCH, Sarah. Critical English for academic purposes: theory, politics, and practice.

Lawrence Erlbawm Associates, 2001.

The Postmethod Era

The post method pedagogy is based on three main parameters:

Particularity: The parameter of particularity is related to a specific kind of teacher, a specific kind of student, a specific kind of goals in a specific context of use and environment. It involves a critical awareness of local conditions of learning and teaching. Therefore, it establishes that teachers must observe their teaching acts, evaluate their outcomes, identify problems, find solutions, and try them out to see what works and what doesn’t.

Practicality: related to theory and practice, in which the teacher should use the classroom to find out if the theory proposed is coherent with the reality.

Possibility: individual identity of teacher and student must be detached; the life experience brought to classroom is very important. This way, it is possible to assume that this parameter is concerned with “the importance of acknowledging and highlighting students’ and teachers’ individual identity”.

I would like to comment that the freedom this new way of teaching brings to the teaching and learning theories consists in a very remarkable event. Teachers may decide which activities to bring to class, according to his/her students' identity, pace of learning, areas of interest, etc. It surely improves learning, since the content aimed to be covered is still covered, but in a much more interesting way!

'Post Method' on the Internet:

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/methods-post-method-métodos

http://revistas.um.es/ijes/article/view/48161

Bibliographical Sources:

A NEW CHALLENGE TO METHODOLOGY IN THE POST METHOD ERA, in

www.jlls.org/Issues/Volume%205/No.2/cbtosun.pdf

TEACHER COMPETENCIES IN THE POST METHOD LANDSCAPE. in

www.ameprc.mq.edu.au/docs/prospect...24_no.../JillMurray.pdf

Kumaravadivelu, B. Understanding language teaching: from method to postmethod. Mahwah, New Jersey;London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2006.

Total Physical Response

The method of the Total Physical Response (TPR) was created by James Asher in the 1960s and 1970s. His main aim was reinforcing the apprentice of words and expressions when learning a second language. Asher brought up the fact that, in that process, language is internalized through a dynamic of code-breaking similar to first language development. That would allow a long period of listening and developing comprehension before the production phase. The main idea of the method consists then on the stimulation of an active participation of the student through the use of motor activities, so the child’s way to communicate is through body gestures.

The method draws on three learning hypothesis:

1) There is an innate bioprogram for language learning, which defines a path for first and second language development; that is, development of listening skills before learning to speak

2) Brain lateralization defines different learning functions; TPR is directed to right-brain learning. Asher holds that the child learner acquires language through motor movement - a right-hemisphere activity. Right-hemisphere activities must occur before the left hemisphere can process language for production

3) Stress (and affective filter) intervenes in the learning process. First language acquisition occurs in a stress-free environment whereas the second language learning environment is often stressful.

It is really interesting that this method was also named "the comprehension approach", since it is based on children's first language acquisition. Therefore, it assumes the fact that a baby takes a lot of time acquiring the necessary input before starting to produce speech.

'TPR' on the Internet:

http://www.tpr-world.com/

http://www.tpr-world.com/what.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_physical_response

http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/waystoapproachlanguagelearning/totalphysicalresponse.htm

http://br.video.yahoo.com/watch/2801843/8126815 (video)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iMRhZRoQsOA&feature=related (ppt)

Bibliographical Sources:

LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. Techniques and principles in language teaching. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986. (only for Total Physical Response)

RICHARDS, J. ; RODGERS, T. Approaches and methods in Language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986

Norland, Deborah L. and Pruett-Said, Terry. A kaleidoscope of models and strategies for teaching English to speakers of other languages. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood, 2006

The Grammar Translation Method

The Grammar-Translation method is a foreign language teaching ‘method’ derived from the classical or method of teaching Greek and Latin. It requires the students to translate whole texts word for word and memorize numerous grammatical rules and exceptions as well as enormous vocabulary lists. The goal of this method is to be able to read and translate literary masterpieces and classics. Throughout Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, the education system was formed primarily around a concept called faculty psychology. In brief, this theory dictated that the body and mind were separate and the mind consisted of three parts: the will, emotion, and intellect. It was believed that if the intellect could be sharpened enough and eventually control the will and the emotions. The way to do this was through learning classical literature of the Greeks and Romans, as well as mathematics.

It is really interesting that, although this method is considered to be outdated, it has marked the beginning of a concern about second language learning and teaching. Besides, it is also relevant to say that, depending on the student's aims (while learning English for specific purposes, for instance) many of the GTM basis may be applicable even nowadays.

‘GTM’ on the Internet:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar_translation

http://www.slideshare.net/vacoka/grammar-translation-method-presentation (video)

articles.famouswhy.com/language_teaching___the_grammar_translation_method/ -

http://global-english.lefora.com/2008/09/14/the-grammar-translation-method/

Bibliographical Sources:

LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. Techniques and principles in language teaching. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.

NORLAND, D.; PRUETT-SAID, T. A kaleidoscope of models and strategies for teaching English to speakers of other languages. Westport, Connecticut; London: Teacher Idea Press, 2006.

RICHARDS, J. ; RODGERS, T. Approaches and methods in Language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

Chunks of Language

Chunks consist in a group of words that generally appear together. In other words, if one considers the corpora of the English language, it may see a lot of words that have their higher frequency while linked to others. They are also called collocations. Expressions as ‘this is mine’, ‘leave me alone’, ‘get rid of’, etc are chunks. The memorization of such groups of words consists in the basis for the so called Lexical Approach, since this ‘approach’ intends to achieve fast results and a high fluency in the students’ speech.

In my opinion, the study of chunks may be very useful for a foreign student who needs to learn fast, or even for those who want to take a full-time course. Chunks are highly-frequent in the language, and it is very important to manage the use of them. However, studying and memorizing chunks is not enough in the process of learning a language. It is necessary, therefore, to complete the study of chunks with the study of the four abilities.

‘Chunks’ on the Internet:

http://www.slideshare.net/denilsolima/chunks-of-language-dealing-with-them-in-the-classroom

http://denilsodelima.blogspot.com/2009/02/chunks-of-language.html

www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/.../vocab.pdf

www.everythingesl.net/.../language_stages.php

Bibliographical Sources:

HAMM, Albert. Language chunks and linguistic units. Univ. des Sciences Humaines, 2005.

HINKEL, Eli. Teaching Academic ESL Writing: Practical techniques in vocabulary and grammar. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004.

LEWIS, Michael .The Lexical Approach. 1993.

Affordances

Created by the psychologist J. J. Gibson, the term ‘affordance’ refers to the perceived and actual properties of the thing, those properties that determine how the thing can be used. So, in other words, he defines affordances as the communication; the relashionship itself, but especially that kind of communication that is self-explanatory. Concerning the teaching and learning area, affordances are opportunities for learning that are perceived by the students in the learning environment, such as the classroom.

It is really important to highlight that affordance varies from student to student, and in this case, factors as identity and background are very determining. Therefore, the teacher must try to understand how the students see him/herself, and how the students read the world that surround them and make associations. This way, the teacher will be able to adapt the pace and strategy of teaching in order to fit in the class affordance.

‘Affordances’ on the Internet:

http://llt.msu.edu/vol10num3/shin/default.html

http://docs.google.com/present/edit?id=0AYY4-Zvccw18ZGY3aDdiY3pfMjg0ZG1xc2NuZzk&hl=en

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance

http://www.guide2digitallearning.com/

Bibliografical Sources:

"Affordances Beyond the Classroom":

http://www.veramenezes.com/beyond.pdf

Norman, D. A. (1988). "The psychology of everyday things." New York: Basic Books.

MENEZES, V. Propiciamento (affordance) e autonomia na aprendizagem de língua inglesa In: LIMA, Diógens Cândido. Aprendizagem de língua inglesa: histórias refletidas. Vitória da Conquista: Edições UESB, 2010. Disponível em: http://www.veramenezes.com/affordance.pdf.

MENEZES, V. AFFORDANCES BEYOND THE CLASSROOM. Disponível em: http://www.veramenezes.com/beyond.pdf.

Identity

The concept of IDENTITY is related to how a person sees her/his relation with the rest of the world. In other terms, we may say that it includes what the person makes of herself/himself and how he or she constructs a social relationship. It is undeniable the fact that identity influences learning, either positively or negatively, according to power or powerless. This way, if a student feels him/herself marginalized, or comes from a marginalized class, for example, this factor is very likely to influence negatively this student’s learning. Contemporary researchers of identity are centrally concerned with the diverse social, historical, and cultural contexts in which language learning takes place, and how learners negotiate and sometimes resist the diverse positions those contexts offer them.

It is mandatory that teachers investigate the identity of each student, as well as the identity of the group. The teacher must understand the students’ reality, in order to adapt content and strategies, providing the students the chance to grasp the most of it. A great example is in case of suggesting topics for written activities. In a class formed by very poor students, it would not be appropriate to ask them to write about their last trip. The topic does not fit to their reality, and it may cause embarrassment and an uncomfortable situation.

'Identity' on the Internet:

"Teacher Identity as Pedagogy: Towards a Field-Internal Conceptualisation in Bilingual and Second Language Education

http://dlll.yorku.ca/bmorgan/documents/IJBEBTeacherIDasPedagogy.pdf

ESL readers: Cultural identity makes difference -http://www.gettingboystoread.com/content/esl-readers-cultural-identity-makes-difference

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_and_Language_Learning

Bibliographical Sources:

NORTON, B. Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change. Harlow: Longman/Pearson Education, 2000.

Kumaravadivelu, B. "Understanding Language Teaching: From Method to Postmethod." London: LEA, 2006.

Wenger, Etienne."Toward a theory of cultural transparency: elements of a social discourse of the visible and the invisible." Dissertation. University of California: Irvine, 1990. http://www.ewenger.com/pub/index.htm

Learning Strategies

Learning Strategies consist in a set of strategies used by the teacher in order to enable the students to learn a language (or any subject). This way, there are many different kinds of learning strategies, among which the teacher would select those ones that are appropriate for the intended purposes. So, there is not a 'better' or 'worse' strategy, but those which 'fit better' according to the students' learning style, pace, etc.

It is really important for a teacher to manage many different learning strategies, so it makes the class interesting for the students. Besides, each learning strategy must be used according to the class you have. For example, it is not appropriate to choose a group discussion activity if all the students from a class are extremely shy. The effectiveness of each strategy will have to be with its appropriateness.

'Learning strategies' on the Internet:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_learning

http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/front_strategies.html

http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED237180&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED237180

Bibliographical Sources:

NISBET, J.; SHUCKSMITH, J. Learning strategies. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986.

___________________. The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of other Languages. 7^th printing. Cambridge University Press, 2005.

LITLEWOOD, W. Communicativa Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1981.